By way of introduction, I like to
make a few remarks about this subject for it is so vast.
Islam in the West
Islam has four faces. Islam can be
seen as the self-realization of the Arab Nation, as a great monotheistic
religion, as a body politic, and as a civilization.1
I will deal with all these ‘faces’, but especially with Islam as a great
monotheistic religion and as a body politic. Moreover, Islam can be divided
into three majority groups: the Sunnis, the Shiites (the latter comprising
the Zaydi, Isma‘ili and the Imamiyyah) and the Extremists:
the Druzes, the Nusayri and others. Since about 85% of all Muslims
are Sunnis, most of the expansion in the West was undertaken by Sunni
Muslims.
Role of the Christian Church
In Christianity there are many churches.
I mention the largest denominations: the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox
(Eastern) Churches, the Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican and Presbyterian
Churches. With regard to the Roman Catholic Church, I shall refer to the
Pontifical Council for Inter-Religious Dialogue (formerly called the Secretariat
for Non-Christians) and with regard to the other Churches I shall refer
to the sub-Unit of Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies
of the World Council of Churches, which represents very many, if not all,
of the churches of the Reformation.
Conquest
Between 643 and 683, the Arab Muslims
conquered the whole of North Africa. The western part they called the Maghrib
(Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia) and the eastern part Ifriqiyyah (Libya, Tripolitania,
Egypt).
Islam in the West
When we say ‘Islam in the West’, we
can think of Islam in southern Europe (Spain), Islam in western Europe
(England), Islam in eastern Europe (Turkey, the Balkans, Russia) and Islam
in central Europe (France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands). It is not
possible to deal with all these topics. I have decided to take two topics:
Islam in southern Europe and Islam in central Europe, with special reference
to the Netherlands.
a. Islam in Southern Europe2
i. The Muslims in Al-Andalus (Moorish Spain)
At the turn of the seventh century, the Visigoth Kingdom
in Europe (the present Spain) was in decay. Troupes of Berbers, led by
Arab commanders, used to cross the strait between the Maghrib and
al-Andalus
to
raid the country. In 711, Musa Ibn Nusayr decided to try an attack.
He did not go himself, but sent one of this lieutenants,
Tariq Ibn Ziyad.
The question of Tariq’s existence is a matter of discussion. But
even if he did not exist, somebody must have been sent.
Tariq
landed
at Gibraltar (the same is derived from Jabl Tariq
(mountain of Tariq).
The Visigoth King Rodrigo received a crushing defeat at the hands of the
Muslims. Having captured Cordoba with difficulty, Tariq pushed on to the
capital Toledo, which he easily conquered. Then he proceeded to Saragossa.
In 712, Musa entered al-Andalus
with
an army and via Merida and Talavera met Tariq at Saragossa. From
there, both went westwards; Tariq to Astarga and Musa to
Gijon. Thus, in lightning speed, the Moors (Arab-Berber Muslims) conquered
practically the whole of al-Andalus. From the North they crossed
the Pyrenees to make raids into France. In 732, they got nearly as far
as the river Loire, but were stopped and put to flight by Charles Martel
at a place in between Poitiers and Tours. For the Moors, the march was
only a raid: for the Christians the victory a great feat and the beginning
of the Reconquista, the recapture of al-Andalus. The presence of
the Muslims in al-Andalus was to last almost eight centuries, from
712 to 1492.
In 750, the Abbasids snatched
the caliphate from the Umayyids and exterminated the members of
the reigning Umayyid family. One of them, ‘Abdu’l-Rahman,
managed to escape. Via Ifriqiyyah and the Maghrib, he arrived in
al-Andalus.
Immediately, he claimed the emirate of Cordoba and founded a dynasty. In
929, he had himself appointed caliph. Although the conquered territory
of al-Andalus was nominally subject to Damascus and later on to Baghdad,
it soon arrogated to itself a great measure of independence. Under ‘Abdu’l-Rahman
III
al-Andalus
flourished.
At his time, Cordoba was probably the greatest and the richest city in
the western world. Many Christians converted to Islam.
By the middle of the tenth century,
Muslims were in majority in al-Andalus. However, the glory faded. Because
of the machinations of the viziers and the internal divisions caused by
the rivalry of small states (in the 10th century there were 15 of them),
the unity was destroyed. In the twelfth century, the Almoravids and the
Almohads tried to restore unity, but did not succeed. In the beginning
of the 13th century, the greater part of al-Andalus was again in Christian
hands. Only the emirate of Granada remained in the hands of the Nasrids.
After a along siege the emirate fell. On 2 January 1492, the Roman Catholic
rulers, Ferdinand and Isabel, received the keys of the city from Boabdil,
the last Muslim ruler in al-Andalus. The Reconquista was completed. The
Jews were expelled. The Muslims were forced to become Christians (Moriscos).
Between 1609-1614 about 300,000 Moriscos were expelled. Thus, the ‘ethnic
cleansing’ was complete and the Muslims disappeared from Spain.
ii. The Muslims in Sicily (827-1090)
When Ifriqiyyah was no longer
a direct subject-province of the Caliphate, but had become an independent
emirate, only nominally dependent on the Abbasids of Baghdad,
the Aghlabid emir at Qayrawan decided to send an expedition into Sicily.
At the head of a small fleet, he landed at Mazara in June 827. He easily
defeated the Byzantine army and advanced into the interior of eastern Sicily.
He conquered the principal towns of Palermo (831) and Mesian (842). Syracuse
fell after a long siege in 878 and Taormina was captured in 1901. Thus
by 902 the whole of Sicily was in Moorish hands. From Sicily, the Moors
made raids into Italy. Two Italian provinces, Calabria and Apullia, were
from 840-880 in Moorish hands. From there, the Muslims raided Italy. Rome
was not forgotten. In 846, the Muslims landed at Ostia. They failed to
penetrate into the Vatican, but sacked the churches of St. Peter and St.
Paul. Afraid of the continued threat of the Muslims, Pope John VIII (872-882)
paid tribute for two years.
The recapture of Bari by the Christians
in 871 marked the beginning of the end of the Muslim threat to Italy and
Central Europe. In 880, the Byzantine Emperor Basil I captured Taranto.
A few years later, he expelled the Muslims from Calabria and brought the
Muslim presence in Italy to an end. In Sicily, it lasted longer.
The Shiite Fatimid Dynasty (909-1171)
took over control of Sicily from the Aghlabids in 909. Besides the old
feuds between the northern and southern Arabs, there was also friction
and rivalry between Spanish and African elements among the Muslim population
of Sicily. The third Caliph, Al-Mansur, appointed Hasan al-Kalbi
as
governor of Sicily in 948. Under him and his successors the Island flourished
until it was gradually conquered in 1090. During the Norman occupation
we see the strange phenomenon that Sicily experienced an efflorescence
of Christian-Islamic culture, especially during the reign of Roger II (1130-1154)
and Roger’s grandson, Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1215-1250), who together
were called ‘the two baptised sultans of Sicily’ (Hitti).
iii. The Islamic Legacy
The Muslims had a great influence
on the culture of al-Andalus (Spain) and Sicily. As far as I know,
the influence was similar, but longer and deeper in al-Andalus than
in Sicily. Therefore, I confine my attention to the former. The following
description I have derived mostly from Bernard Lewis.
Moorish Spain at its peak presented
a proud spectacle in many ways. It contributed to:
Agriculture: The moors repaired
and extended the Roman irrigation system. They introduced new crops; aubergine,
artichoke, apricots, sugarcane, almonds, henna, madder and saffran. Probably
the greatest gift was the Merino sheep.
Industry: The Moors developed
many industries: textiles, pottery, paper, silk and sugar refining. They
opened mines of gold, silver and other metals. Textiles were the chief
industry.
Trade: The Moors carried on
an extensive trade with the Middle East and even the Far East.
Politics: Arab terms still
persist in the local administration and the military vocabulary.
Art and Architecture: Perhaps
the most distinguished contribution was art and architecture. They succeeded
in finding a happy mixture of Arab and Byzantine models. The most famous
examples are: the mosque of Cordoba, the Ciralda Tower and the Alcazar
in Sevilla, and the Alhambra of Granada.
Science and Religion: The Arab
heritage in science and religion must be regarded as of great importance
to Spain and indeed to all western Europe. A great part of the legacy of
Greece came to the West in the translations from Arabic into Latin made
in Spain. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translation,
where Jews, Christians and Muslims co-operated, translated works of Aristotle,
Euclid, Ptolemy, Galen and Hippocrates, enriched by their Arabic commentators.
Political Fragmentation: The
Moorish conquests destroyed the political unification furthered by the
Roman rule and the piecemeal manner of the re-conquest obstructed full
reunification causing political fragmentation.
Political Alienation: Nine
centuries of Moorish occupation alienated Spain from the rest of Europe.
Economic Backwardness: The
Spaniards invested most energy in the re-conquest, neglecting the country’s
economic development.
Warlike Mentality: The sustained
effort of the re-conquest engendered a warlike mentality.
Clerical Influence: The religious
character of the Reconquista enhanced the power of the clergy and clerical
influence, which has been harmful to Spanish politics.
Occasional Religious Intolerance:
This concerned the Mudejars, Muslims under Christian rule, as well as the
Mozarabs, Christians under Muslim rule. It was manifested in several programs
of Jews. ‘Even when this (the negative aspect) has been taken into consideration,
says Gabrieli, ‘the impartial observer cannot fail to recognize that the
long centuries of Arab domination were a time of long-lasting glory for
Arabism, and made a positive contribution to the general history of civilization…
we cannot say as much for Arab dominion in Sicily’ (p.207).
iv. The Present Situation
Since the seventies of this century,
Spain has again a growing community of Muslims, which consists of both
legal and illegal immigrants, mostly from Morocco, and some Spanish converts
to Islam. The Yamaa Islamica de Al-Andalus tries to achieve the re-islamization
and independence of Andalusia, The Church in Spain encourages dialogue
between Christians and Muslims, recommends the study of Islam and co-operation
between Christians and Muslims. The progress is slow.
Though the Moorish occupation of Spain
has left many traces in the language, architecture, science, agricultural
technology and the art-and-crafts, the Reconquista is still seen as a holy
war of Christian Spain against the Muslim hordes. This myth is still celebrated
every year in southern Spain in the form of sham fights between Cross and
Crescent. (Fiestas de Moros y Christianos). History has a long memory.
b. Islam in Central Europe (The Netherlands)3
After World War II, Europe soon recovered
from the pangs of war. An economic boom started. The labour force was not
large enough to cope with it. In the fifties, the central European countries
imported labourers from Spain and Italy. Whenever that supply was not sufficient,
they began to recruit labourers in Turkey and Northern Africa. These labourers
were Muslims. Thus, the number of Muslims began to grow considerably. In
1971, the number of Muslims in the Netherlands was 50,000. Originally,
the plan was that they would stay for a few years and then return to their
home countries. In the seventies, the Muslim labourers, mostly Turks and
Maroccans, began to send for their families. In 1975, the number of Muslims
in Netherlands was about 100,000; in 1992, more than 414,000, and their
present number is estimated to be about 630,000. By now, the number of
Muslims in Central Europe being more than seven million, using about 6000
mosques or prayer rooms.
As their numbers grew, the Muslims
began to organize themselves in order to demand the recognition of their
own culture, and to obtain the rights granted them in the Dutch Constitution.
They requested permission for and financing of their mosques or prayer
rooms, permits for imams, burial facilities, ritual slaughtering of animals,
facilities for circumcision for boys, recognition of Islamic festivals,
permission for the teaching of religion in and outside schools, permission
for establishing their own schools, their own broadcasting station, and
special time on radio and television, observance of their own dietary laws
in the forces, prisons and hospitals, recognition of their own family laws
and opportunities to participate in advisory bodies and committees.
i. Places of worship
Permission to build mosques and furnish
prayer rooms was readily given. Financial support for the same was not
easily obtainable, since in the Netherlands there is constitutional separation
of church and state. In the beginning, a few exceptions were made, but
since 1984 no more grant-in-aid was given. Even so the Muslim community
has built some beautiful mosques in the Netherlands. There are about 400
Muslim places of worship.
ii. Imams
The basic meaning of imam is
leader of the institutional prayer especially on Friday afternoon. Besides
this function, the imam gives religious instruction, teaches recitation
of the Koran, settles disputes and does some pastoral work. There are about
400 imams; half of them are qualified, the others are not qualified. The
qualified imams are generally imported. The Turkish community (on 1st January
1995, the number of non-naturalized Turks was 158, 653) has about 120 qualified
imams, sent out and paid by the Turkish Directorate for Religious Affairs
Diyanat. The Moroccan community (on 1st January 1995 the number of non-naturalized
Moroccans was 182,089) has fifty qualified imams from Morocco and the Surinam-Hindustani
community has fifteen imams from India and Pakistan. The number of unqualified
imams is about 200. In general, the imams function badly because they have
either language problems or do not know the local situation.
iii. Undertaking
Undertakers could easily adapt themselves
to Islamic burial rites. Two difficulties remain: a deceased person may
only be buried after 36 hours by law and the number of Islamic burial places
is not sufficient. Many Muslims of Turkish or Moroccan origin prefer to
be buried in their home countries.
iv. Ritual slaughter
After much discussion and several
court cases the secretary of State for Internal Affairs allowed the Islamic
way of slaughter in 1975, by analogy with the Jewish manner. When, in 1981,
the European community wanted to make a treaty to this effect and also
allow the export of such meat, some political parties objected wanting
the practice to be outlawed. They did not succeed. The treaty was ratified
in 1986.
v. Circumcision
As contrasted with the circumcision
of girls, circumcision of boys has not met with any opposition. It is regularly
practiced in hospitals as well as homes.
vi. Festivals
The Islamic festivals have not yet
been recognized officially. Working Muslims have to ask leave if they wish
to celebrate them.
vii. Schools and Religious Instruction
Muslims are allowed to build and run
their own schools, provided they comply with all the government rules and
regulations. In non-Muslim schools (though not all), religious instruction
in Islam is given. If parents desire, Muslim pupils can receive instruction
outside school hours in their own language and culture.
viii. The media
The Muslim Information Centre (MIC)
publishes a quarterly ‘Qiblah’. The Islamic foundation Soera publishes,
the quarterly ‘Soera’, a journal about the Middle East: The women
publish ‘al-Nisa’. There is an Islamic Broadcasting Organisation,
the Nederlandse Moslim Omroep (NMO), which provides a TV presentation in
Dutch every Sunday from 12:30 to 13:00 hours, and broadcasts on the radio:
every Monday to Friday from 18:00 to 18:30 hours in Dutch, from 18:30 to
1900 in Turkish, and from 19:00 to 19:30 hours in Arabic, dealing with
religious or socio-economic questions of the Muslim community.
ix. Organizations
Because of social and psychological
differences the Muslims in the Netherlands have organized themselves along
religious, political and ethnical lines. We can distinguish along religious
lines: Sunnis, Shiites and the marginal group of the ‘Alawi and
the Ahmadi; along ethnical lines; the Moroccans, Turks, Indians,
Pakistanis, Surinams, Africans; along political lines: among the Moroccans
(1) members of the Union of Moroccan Muslim Organizations in the Netherlands
(UMMON), Moroccan government sponsored, and (2) the Netherlands Federation
of Maghriban Islamic Organisations (NFMIO) independent; among the Turks;
(1) those associated with the Turkish Directorate for Religious Affairs
(Diyanat), government sponsored, but non-political; (2) the two other organizations:
the Turkish Islamic Cultural Federation (TICF) and the Islamitische Stichting
Nederland (Islamic Foundation of the Netherlands), the purpose of which
is not very clear; (3) they Sulaymanci and Milli Gorus, fundamentalist
organizations Surinam Muslims have joined either the World Islamic Mission
(WIM) or the International Muslims Organization (IMO). It should be evident
that these divisions are great obstacles to the efficiency and integration
of the Muslim community in the Netherlands.
The Role of the Church(es)4
Already during the first generation
of Muslims after the Prophet Muhammad’s death (632), misunderstandings,
prejudice and enmity between Christians and Muslims started and have continued
– of course, with laudable exceptions – till the twentieth century. The
first time the Church issued official positive statements about Islam was
during the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965).
The Islamic Religion
The Church regards Moslems with esteem.
They adore the one God, living and subsisting in himself, merciful and
all-power, the creator of the heavens and the earth (Cf. St. Gregory VII,
Letter 21 to Anzir, King of Mauritania [PL 148, cols. 450f.]), who has
spoken to men; they take pains to submit wholeheartedly even to his inscrutable
decrees, just as Abraham (sws), with whom the faith of Islam is gladly
linked submitted to God. Though they do not acknowledge Jesus (sws) as
God, they revere him as a prophet. They also honour Mary, his virgin mother;
at times they even call on her with devotion. Moreover, they look forward
to the day of judgement when God will render their deserts to all those
raised up form the dead. Finally, they value the moral life and worship
God, especially through prayer, almsgiving and fasting. In the course of
centuries, there have indeed been many quarrels and hostilities between
Christians and Muslims. But now the Council exhorts everyone to forget
the past, to make sincere effort for mutual understanding, and so to work
together for the preservation and fostering of social justice, moral welfare,
and peace and freedom for all mankind. (Nostra Aetate, 3).
On 17th May 1964, Pope Paul VI established
an institute for inter-religious dialogue, called Secretariate for non-Christians
(Secretariatus pro no-Christianis), since 1989 called the Pontifical Council
for the Dialogue among the Religions (Pontificium Concilium pro Dialogo
inter-Religious). It has a special department for dialogue between Christians
and Muslims. In January 1971, the World Council of Churches set up the
Sub-unit of Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies (DFI).
Both institutions have done much to promote and improve relationships between
Christians and People of other Faiths, including Muslims. The Pontifical
Council in Rome publishes a journal for inter-religious dialogue: The Bulletin,
and the Office on Inter-religious Dialogue of the World Council of Churches
in Geneva a monthly: ‘Current Dialogue’. Moreover, the Roman Catholic Church
has in Rome the Pontifical Institute for the study of Arabic and Islam,
which publishes the important yearly issue of Islamo-Christiana. Furthermore,
the Christian churches have started centres for the study of Islam and
Muslim-Christian Relations in many countries: e.g. in Morocco, Tunisia
Egypt, India, Pakistan and Indonesia. On the international ecumenical level,
the Christians have formed a Council of European Churches (CEC), in which
the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Church and the Churches of the Reformation
co-operate to Develop common policies, also with regard to people of other
faiths. On the national and local levels, various institutions and organizations
have been established. In the Netherlands, the Christians have started
a National Council of Churches which has various sub-units, one for Christian-Muslim
relations.
The three main churches, the Roman Catholic Church, the
Reformed Churches of the Netherlands and the Dutch-Reformed Church have
each an ‘Islam-office’, which provides information about Islam and tries
to suggest ways and means for improving relations between Christians and
Muslims. Together the three churches publish the journal ‘Begrip’ (Understanding).
Conclusion
Dialogue in all its different forms,
has apparently become a very important – probably the most important –
way in human relationships and community living. There will be no peace
in the world without peace among the religions is a favourite thesis
of Hans Kung. This can only be achieved through dialogue, when people keep
on talking, not to one another, but with one another. To quote Dr.
Kamil Husain:
Beyond the field of doctrinal conflicts, there
exists on earth a place of meeting for all people who believe, namely the
Sacred Valley. There is heard the truth without hesitation, as if God Himself
were speaking.5
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